• Bain, H. (1989). A study of the first grade effective teaching practices from the Project Star Class-size Research. A study of fifty effective teachers whose class average gain scores ranked in the top 15% of each of four school types in Project STAR.
  Teaching practices and professional and personal characteristics of 49 effective first-grade teachers, and the materials they used, were studied in an effort to determine what effective teachers do to promote learning in reading and mathematics. The effective teacher practices survey instrument, a Project STAR grouping questionnaire, and a research synthesis on effective schooling practices are appended.

• Baird, W.E.. Prather, J.P., Finson, K.D., & Oliver, J.S. (1994). Comparison of perceptions among rural versus nonrural secondary science teachers: a multistate survey. Science education,78, (6) 555-576
  This document is an 100-item survey that was distributed to science teachers in eight states to determine characteristics of teachers, schools, programs, and perceived needs. Results from 1258 secondary science teachers indicate that they perceive the following to be among their greatest needs: (1) to motivate students to want to learn science, (2) to discover sources of free and inexpensive science materials; (3) to learn more about how to use computers to deliver and manage instruction; (4) to find and use materials about science careers; and (5) to improve problem solving skills among their students. Based on whether teachers classified themselves as nonrural or rural, rural teachers do not perceive as much need for help with multicultural issues in the classroom or maintaining student discipline as their nonrural peers. Rural teachers report using the following classroom activities less often than nonrural teachers: cooperative learning groups, hands-on laboratory activities, individualized strategies, and inquiry teaching. More rural than nonrural teachers report problems with to many class preparations per day, a lack of career role models in the community, and lack of colleagues with whom to discuss problems. Among all secondary science teachers, the most pronounced problems reported by teachers were (1) insufficient student problem-solving skills; (2) insufficient funds for supplies; (3) poor student reading ability; (4) lack of student interest in science; and (5) inadequate laboratory facilities. Lit review. Summary tables. No instruments but tables identify survey questions.

• Bureau of Intergroup Relations. (1974). Kit of materials for needs assessment and evaluation. Sacramento: California State Department of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service: ED 099 442)
  The items included in this kit represent a variety of needs assessment instruments and evaluation designs and methods offered by school districts in their plans for implementation of Article 3.3, Education Code sections 13344-13344.4, school staff preparation in the history, culture, and current problems of racial and ethnic minorities. Some are appropriate for large districts, some for small. They show diverse thinking about objectives and measurement. They deal variously with the assessment of staff needs, with patterns of attitude and opinion, and with the evaluation of inservice content, presentation methods, and outcomes. Contents include: (1) A statement on the goals of Multicultural education; (2) form IR-303, a progress report, school year 1973-1974; (3) Staff opinion survey; (4) A personal questionnaire for teachers of Chicano students (Baldwin Park); (5) Pre-program survey of course expectations; post-course survey of expectations--fulfillment (Santa Cruz); (6) multicultural inservice training institute needs assessment inventory; post -institute survey (Canada College); (7) Five questions for teachers in evaluating multicultural inservice activities; (8) Evaluation Design for 3.3 inservice training program (Riverside); (9) Design for Evaluation of District Inservice Plan (Fresno); and (10) Needs Assessment, objectives, activities, assessment-evaluation (Oceanside).

• Cook, D.W. Systematic need assessment: A primer. Journal of counseling and development, 67, (8), 462-463. .
  The purpose of this article is to provide information on conducting program-related needs assessment. A step-by step approach to designing need assessments is given. Attention is directed toward the importance of prioritizing needs; a scaling procedure for ensuring prioritization is reviewed; and an example of a need assessment using the scaling techniques is presented.

• Development Associates. (1988). A systems level transition needs assessment: Step-by- step procedures how to conduct the assessment. Sacramento: California State Department of Education. (ERIC document reproduction service No. 301 997)
  This resource guide outlines procedures for efficiently and effectively planning and implementing transition programming for at-risk students. Based on a review and synthesis of needs assessment systems in transition programs, a flow chart is presented showing step-by-step procedures recommended for local transition needs assessments. Steps in the flow chart are numbered to correspond with numbered comments and instructions for implementation. The model in the flow chart is meant to be generic and flexible and is designed for use by those who want to complete a comprehensive systems needs assessment process as well as those who would like to enter the model at later steps. Three appendices, which make up the bulk of the resource guide, include: (1) an explanation of the California State Department of Education definition of transition and charts of the transition process; (2) a graphic representation of data collection methodologies; and (3) samples of 15 needs assessment instruments covering such program areas as client characteristics/demographic variables, standards for evaluating the quality of secondary special education programs, parents attitudes, community service program effectiveness, etc.

• Easterday, K.E. & Smith, T. (1992). A survey of mathematics teacher needs. School science and mathematics, 92, (4) 212-219
  This article describes a needs assessment survey of inservice education. Summary tables provide list of questions used in the survey. A detailed quantitative analysis of the survey is given. This nationwide survey of mathematics teachers was conducted in the 1975-76 scholar by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

• Evans, N.J. (1985). Needs assessment methodology: A comparison of results. Journal of college student personnel, 23, (2) 107-114
  Results obtained from different needs assessment methodologies are compared. The following questions were addressed: 1. Does a theory-based, objective instrument yield similar results when compared to an empirically derived objective instrument? 2. Do an objective instrument and semi-structured interview yield similar results? 3. Do a theory-based, semi-structured interview and a general, semi-structured interview yield similar results? The results suggest that, in assessing self reported student concerns, data from surveys can be at least as informative as those obtained from more expensive and time-consuming interviews. A well-designed questionnaire with a theoretical base can provide a comprehensive and accurate overview of concerns.

• Fishman, B.J. & Duffy, T.M. Classroom restructuring: What do teachers really need? Educational technology research and development, 22, (3) 95-111
  This article describes the results of a needs analysis carried out to determine the requirements of teachers who wish to restructure their classrooms. The article also describes Strategic Teaching Frameworks (STF), a hypermedia computer system that is intended to have a profound impact on professional development for teachers in the United States. STF was designed according to the results of the needs analysis. The needs analysis consisted of interviews with 30 teachers who have changed or are in the process of changing their classrooms. The interviews focused on the nature of the teachers’ changes and the tools and resources they used to support those changes. Two of the most important resources were the ability to look at other classrooms and the ability to collaborate with colleagues. The interviews also sought to discover what resources the teachers found lacking; among these were time and financial support.

• Fritz, M., Jenness, M., Mansberger, N., and Rubino, A., (1994). Figuring our what works: Practical tips on evaluating your science programs. Kalamazoo, MI: SAMPI, Western Michigan University.
  This brief document is divided into four sections that would be helpful in planning a needs assessment: 1) Basics of program evaluation, 2) Assessing science education needs, 3) Use of surveys in program evaluation, and 3) Interviews and focus groups.

• Gottfredson, G.D. & Stewart, M.W. (1989). The internal structure and correlates of the South Carolina needs assessment instruments. Washington, D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC document reproduction service No. 308 227)
  The internal structure and correlates of the South Carolina state Department of Education’s Needs Assessment Instruments (NAIs) for teachers, parents, and students were examined for. The NAIs are questionnaires that assess six indicators of school effectiveness: (1) instructional leadership of the principal; (2) emphasis on academics; (3) high expectations; (4) positive school climate; (5) frequent monitoring; and (6) positive home-school relations. The internal structure of the NAIs displayed limited convergent and discriminate validity, and the scales did not provide independent measures of the constructs implied by their names. However, the scores produced by the teacher instrument were often significantly and moderately positively correlated with a variety of salutary educational outcomes, with most scales showing a similar pattern of correlation’s with various criteria. These correlations often persisted when statistical controls for student ethnic composition and economic status were applied. Resulting patterns suggest that the various scales of the instruments measured general or global positive sentiments toward the school rather than specific dimensions of school climate, and these generalized views were often related to positive educational outcomes. The student and parent instruments generally failed to show interpretable patterns of correlations with the criteria examined. Developing and using school assessment instruments in relation to the effective schools movement lists are discussed. Twenty-two tables present study data.

• Guba, E.G. & Lincoln, E.G. (1982). Educational evaluation and policy analysis, 5, (2)
  This paper posits that the delineation of values is critical to proper needs assessments. It shows that there are at least five points at which value judgments impinge upon needs determination. It raises the question of how values can be identified and taken account of in needs assessments. The interplay of facts and values in projecting responses to the needs that are determined is discussed.

• Hansen, B.J. & Marburger, C.L. (1988). School based improvement: A manual for district leaders. Columbia, MD: National committee for citizens in education. (ERIC document reproduction service No. 301 954)
  This manual is intended to be a how-to guide for school district leaders who want to begin using a school-based approach to improve the quality of education in their districts. The manual provides a brief review of the school-based improvement process--what it is and the rationale for using it. One section deals with implementing school-based improvement ideas. This guide will help to identify the people who are key to instituting school-based improvement: district superintendents, boards of education, district staff, parents, community members, teachers, and principals. A variety of strategies used to gain support are provided: districtwide, pilot, school selection, and selecting and training facilitators and councils. Another section points out the steps needed to move into and institutionalize a school-based improvement approach. Guidance on avoiding common pitfalls is offered. Appended are (1) key presentation points and transparency designs for an orientation to school-based improvement; (2) a model memorandum of agreement; (3) examples of needs assessment instruments; and (4) and 17 references.

• Hirumi, A. (1994). Assessing the needs of public education: A tale of two models. Performance and instruction, 33, (5) 23-30.
  This is an interview with two prominent experts on needs assessment, Allison Rossett and Roger Kaufman. The application of needs assessment models, tools, and techniques were discussed. Purpose based assessment (supported by Rossett) and the organizational elements model (supported by Kaufman) are contrasted. Needs assessment is described as a systematic method for assessing needs in order to make meaningful decisions about material development, program initiation, policy formation, and resource allocation.

• Johnson, W.L. (1986). Two methods of scoring discrepancy format needs assessment instruments. Journal of Experimental Education, 55, (1) 39-42
  Two methods of scoring discrepancy format needs assessment instruments were compared. A highly simplified method for scoring was presented. In particular, it was shown that the use of the simplified procedure yielded statistically equivalent results as compared to the use of the more complex scoring procedure. The advantage of the modified techniques is that the educational practitioner can use a simple method for calculating needs assessment indices. The importance of considering the format of needs assessment instruments and the scoring techniques of such are discussed.

• Iwanicki, E.F. & McEachern, L. Using teacher self-assessment to identify staff development needs. Journal of Teacher Education, 25, (2) 38-41
  This article develops the rationale for using teacher self-assessment as a means to develop a staff development program.. Models and strategies are presented for carrying out this self assessment. Methodology is presented but a specific assessment instrument is not presented. Twelve references.

• Kaufman, R. (1988). Needs Assessment: A menu. Educational technology, 28, (7) 21-22
  This articles offers a menu for selecting alternative models and tools for assessing needs based upon what we want to accomplish. Five needs assessment related questions are provided along with a menu for selecting the frame of reference for a needs assessment (or analysis) and choosing alternative ways and means to do that selected job right. For each model, chosen on the menu, related references are included.

• Kaufman, R. (1988). Planning educational systems: A results-based approach. Lancaster, PA: Techomic Publishing Co.
  This book is about how to do responsible, results-based, people-oriented educational planning. It provides a frame of reference for the planning of educational systems: The Organizational Elements Model (OEM). It includes a nine-step process for assessing educational needs, along with ways and means necessary to collect and use both attitude and perception data as well as performance data. The book is useful for ifferentiating among needs assessment, needs analysis, front-end analysis, and other "popular methods, and showing when to use each.

• Kaufman, R. (1991). Strategic planning in education: Rethinking, restructuring, revitalizing. Lancaster, PA: Techomic Publishing Co.
  This book provides a practical and understandable framework for strategic planning, along with the steps and stages to do it. It develops a specific strategic planning model and approach which has four major areas: scoping, data collecting, planning, and implementation and evaluation. "Needs assessment" is discussed as part of the scoping, and data collection process.

• Kaufman, R.A. (1992). A needs assessment audit. Performance and instruction, 33, (2) 14-16.
  Roger Kaufman, professor and director of the Center for Needs Assessment and Planning, Florida State University, presents a pragmatic audit that identifies the essential elements for a useful needs assessment, and provides the criteria to be used to identify what might be missing from the current process. A needs assessment audit chart is presented.

• Kaufman, R., Rogas, A.M., & Mayer, H. (1993). Needs assessment: A users guide. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
  This book is a basic text on conducting needs assessment. It begins with the basics and moves to mega-, macro-, and micro-levels of needs assessment. It also addresses the relationship between needs assessment and organizational effectiveness. It concludes with a needs assessment tool kit. The book is written so that you can go directly to the chapter relating to your needs. Each chapter includes examples, checklists, and application tools along with excellent charts, tables, and figures. Each chapter begins with a list of key points. Sample forms are included which can be used for your own needs assessment.

• Kaufman, R., Stakenas, R.G., and Wager, J.C. (1981). Relating needs assessment, program development, implementation, and evaluation. Journal of instructional development,4, (4), 17-26.
  This article is designed to help one understand the differences and relationships between needs assessment, program development, program implementation, and evaluation. Diagrams and step-by-step procedures for conducting a needs assessment are presented. The Organizational Elements Model is explained.

• Klevans, D.R. (1987). Developing a needs assessment plan in continuing professional education. Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park, Office of Continuing Professional Education. (ERIC document reproduction service No. 297 092)
  This document provides an overview of the needs assessment literature related to continuing professional education and guidelines for designing needs assessment procedures for a given project of professional group. Section 1 reviews the literature. It considers key concepts and definitions, reviews factors that may influence the development of a particular needs assessment process, and discusses arguments for focusing on performance outcomes. Section 2 reviews general methodological and procedural issues that should be weighed in designing a needs assessment. Among them are levels of assessment appropriate for long-and short-range planning, factors into consider in choosing specific needs assessment instruments, and procedures useful in determining priorities among needs. Section 3 highlights key points and recommends directions they suggest for designing needs assessment procedures and directions for future research and development. The appendix is designed as a reference guide for needs assessment planning. An outline of steps to develop an orderly needs assessment plan is presented, and specific needs assessment procedures are summarized in several ways. First, procedures are grouped by the sources from which they obtain information. Next, various other ways by which to characterize needs assessment procedures are listed. The section concludes with brief outlines of assessment procedures that may be useful in planning continuing professional education and a bibliography of 46 references.

• Lee, W.W. & Roadman, K.H. (1981). Linking needs assessment to performance based evaluation. Performance and instruction, 30, (6) 4-6.
  Lee and Roadman examine the rationale for conducting needs assessment in the training development process. This assessment, according to the authors must include the five types of needs- normative need, felt need, demand need, comparative need, and future needs. They posit that addressing only one of these needs can lead to development of training that misses the mark in terms of a solution to a problem. For example, the solution to top management’s perception that people do not work cooperatively as teams might lead them to develop training courses that teach teamwork. In actuality, what might be happening is that the company’s promotion policy is based on individual achievement. This would cause employees not to share solutions, ideas, and information. The solution is not team work training, but changing company policy. Translating training into performance is also discussed.

• Mager, R.F. (1972). Goal analysis. Belmont, CA: Fearon Publishers, Inc.
  Goal Analysis explains a procedure that will help you describe the meaning of the goals you hope to achieve- whether these goals deal with attitudes, appreciations, or understandings- so that you will be able to make better decisions toward their achievement and recognize progress and success. The goal analysis procedure is often critical in the development of meaningful and achievable objectives.

• Mager, R.F. (1975). Preparing instructional objectives. Belmont, CA: Fearon Publishers, Inc.
  Dr. Mager effectively demonstrates how to define teaching objectives, how to state them clearly, and how to describe criteria by which to measure success. The first step in this process is doing the needs analysis. The book addresses the questions: 1. Is there a problem worth solving? 2. Is instruction a relevant part of the solution? 3. If so, what should the instruction accomplish?

• National Center for Improving Science Education. (1993). Profiling Teacher Development Programs: An Approach to Formative Evaluation. Andover, MA: The Network, Inc. with support from the United States Department of Energy.
  A guide to the process of "program profiling," an approach to formative evaluation used by the National Center for Improving Science Education. Includes an instrument, "Template for Teacher Development Programs," which could serve as an excellent tool for needs assessment. Instead of allowing only for the description of a program, it also allows for comparison of that program to best practice. Also included are interview protocols used for teacher profiling.

• Stufflebeam, D.L., McCormic, C.H., Brinkerhoff, R.O., & Nelson, C.O. (1985). Conducting Educational Needs Assessment. Hingham, MA: Kuwer Academic Publishers.
  This book is a useful reference to the educator involved in doing a needs assessment. It gives general information concerning definitions, concepts, and practices in the area of needs assessment. It discusses important aspects of the needs assessment process: preparation, information gathering, analysis, reporting the needs assessment result, and evaluating the needs assessment.

• Thomas, K.J. & Kellerman, D.K. (1995). Ask a silly question, get a silly answer: Designing effective questionnaires for needs assessment instruments. Performance and instruction, 34, (4) 4-6
  This article provides a set of guidelines for effective questionnaire construction. Examples are given for each guideline.

• Witkin, B.R. (1984). Assessing needs in educational and social programs. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
  The intent of this book is to present a broad array of methods of gathering and analyzing data and setting priorities. The thesis of the book is that needs assessment is an essential part of an ongoing cycle of program planning, implementation, and evaluation; that its purpose is to make decisions about priorities; that it must be viewed in context; and that there is no one correct or definitive procedure for all situations. The book also offers criteria for evaluating needs assessment methods.

• Yager, R.E., Bonstetter, R.J. (1990). The practices of teachers who develop exemplary science programs. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service: ED 328 416)
  This document presents recommendations and generalizations from Project Synthesis, Educating Americans for the 21st Century, National Science Teacher Association Excellence Programs, and the Iowa Honors Workshop concerning the 861 teachers who were part of exemplary programs. Specific teaching strategies are listed that are associated with standard and exemplary teaching. Ten features of exemplary programs produced by exemplary teachers are listed.

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