AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

OF THE ASYLUM LAKE/COLONY FARM ORCHARD PROPERTY IN

KALAMAZOO, MICHIGAN

 

 

Rory J. Becker and Michael S. Nassaney

Presented to:

Asylum Lake Preserve Research and Education Review Panel

Asylum Lake Policy and Management Council

Western Michigan University

Reports of Investigations No. 109

Presented by:

Department of Anthropology

Western Michigan University

Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5032

 

 

Cover:  Ceramic bowl with the Michigan state seal found in the project area during the pedestrian survey (Field Number 3-4-36).

© 2005            Department of Anthropology

            Western Michigan University

            Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5032

            All rights reserved

 

This study was conducted in part with funds provided by the Office of the Vice President for Business and Finance, Western Michigan University.

 

 

 

ABSTRACT

 

The Colony Farm Orchard and Asylum Lake properties, currently owned by Western Michigan University, were once part of a working farm administered by the Kalamazoo State Mental Hospital.  Founded in 1857, the State Hospital was the first facility devoted to the care of the mentally ill in the State of Michigan. In the 1880s the hospital trustees authorized the purchase of land south of Asylum Lake to establish the Colony Farm.  The operation was designed to use agricultural activities to help rehabilitate patients as prescribed by leading progressive health reform advocates.  This report presents the results of documentary research concerning land-use practices and a pedestrian survey in the project area to assess its archaeological sensitivity.  Several locations within the project area have the potential to contain significant archaeological remains that can inform about the social and economic conditions of the people who used and occupied the area from ancient times up through the 20th century.

 

 

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

 

 

As with all collaborative endeavors, this research project would not have been possible without the assistance of many individuals.  We are grateful for the vision of Bob Beam (VP for Business and Finance), Chuck Ide (Director of the Environmental Institute), and Chad Avery (Chair, Asylum Lake Preserve Research and Education Review Panel) who made this archaeological assessment a priority in their planning for the future of the Asylum Lake Preserve. Thanks to Chad Avery and the WMU Office of Landscape Services for access to the site, information concerning previous work on the property, and the digital camera utilized during the pedestrian survey.  Nathan Burtch and Jessica Sonday (WMU Office of Landscape Services) provided GPS and GIS technical support for the walkover survey and they assisted in creating the detailed maps and images produced with ArcMap 8.0 software that are included in this report.  Mary Lou Larson (University of Wyoming) also provided technical assistance with the GIS.  Students from the Department of Anthropology who volunteered their time to participate in the survey include Jacob Bach, Brock Giordano, Marc Henshaw, Lacosta Lykowski, LisaMarie Malischke, and Brendan Weaver.

 

Operators of GPS equipment during the survey include Nathan Burtch, Jessica Sonday, Alvin Brooks, and Michael Traina. Lacosta Lykowski also conducted documentary research on the built environment that assisted us in preparing Chapter 2. Other members of the Department of Anthropology who contributed time and effort to the project include Daniel Lynch and Lauretta Eisenbach.  We thank William Sauck (WMU Department of Geosciences) for providing maps and information on the project area.  Sharon Carlson assisted by locating resources and digitizing many of the Colony Farms images housed in the WMU Archives and Regional History Collections.  Mark Hoffman shared his knowledge of the property’s history.  Jay Emerson (WMU Department of Geography) provided two of the four Trimble GPS units used in the survey. Mark Hoffman, Chad Avery, Bill Cremin, Robert Nagler, Paul MacNellis, Connie Ferguson, and Jack Wood reviewed an earlier draft of this report and provided useful commentary.  Finally, we thank all of the members of the Kalamazoo community who had a hand in preserving this property for public and educational uses. By doing so, they have helped to save a small part of Kalamazoo’s history.  

 

 

            Rory J. Becker, M.A.

            Project Archaeologist

            Michael S. Nassaney, Ph.D.

            Principal Investigator

 

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

 

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2. HISTORIC OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND RESEARCH

 

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS

CHAPTER 4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 

APPENDIX A: SURVEY RESULTS AND PHOTOGRAPHIC LOG

REFERENCES CITED

 

 

  

LIST OF FIGURES

 

 

Figure 1. Project area shown shaded in gray on the 1967 USGS 7.5” Topographic Map, Kalamazoo Quadrangle.

 

Figure 2. Subsurface anomalies exhibiting signatures consistent with utility pipes identified through geophysical survey.

 

Figure 3. Location of the 2003 geophysical survey grid.

 

Figure 4. Results of the 2003 resistivity survey.

 

Figure 5. Location of the Neil Hindes farmhouse and Colony Farm property in 1887.

 

Figure 6. Hindes Cottage in the early 20th century.

 

Figure 7. Van Deusen Cottage in the early 20th century.

 

Figure 8. Palmer Cottage in the early 20th century.

 

Figure 9. Mitchell Cottage in the early 20th century.

 

Figure 10. Pratt Cottage prior to 1930 remodeling.

Figure 11. Fair Oaks Cottage in the early 20th century.

 

Figure 12. Locations of Colony Farm buildings in 1900.

Figure 13. Locations of Colony Farm buildings in 1930.

 

Figure 14. Locations of Colony Farm buildings in 1953.

Figure 15. Lake view from Van Deusen Cottage.

 

Figure 16. Woman walking toward the Mitchell Cottage.

Figure 17. Hilltop cottages.

 

Figure 18. People seated on a bench near Van Deusen Cottage.

Figure 19. Fair Oaks Cottage with Palmer Cottage in the background.

 

Figure 20. Pedestrian survey areas and numerical designations.

Figure 21. Locations of artifacts and features recorded during the pedestrian survey.

 

Figure 22. Pedestrian survey results for Area 1.

Figure 23. Pedestrian survey results for Area 2.

 

Figure 24. Pedestrian survey results for Area 3.

Figure 25. Archaeological sensitivity map.

 

 

 

CHAPTER 1

 

INTRODUCTION

This report documents the results of an archaeological assessment of the 274-acre Asylum Lake and 54-acre Colony Farm Orchard properties (hereafter the Preserve).  The Preserve is a 328-acre parcel of land in Kalamazoo County owned by Western Michigan University (WMU).  The property is currently set aside as a passive-use recreation area mandated through 1975 Public Act 316 (and subsequent amendments) under an agreement between the City of Kalamazoo and WMU and a “Conservation Restriction adopted by the WMU Board of trustees on April 16, 2004 (Mark Hoffman, personal communication, 2005).  The Research and Education Committee Review Panel of the Asylum Lake Policy and Management Council voted to approve an archaeological assessment given that the area has the potential to contain archaeological resources that are eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places.  The purpose of an archaeological assessment is to collect cultural, historical, and environmental information to aid in the identification of archaeological sites in a particular area.  Site identification is a necessary first step in the process of site protection and preservation.  By conducting an archaeological assessment, a tentative predictive model of the probable location and disposition of archaeological resources can be developed for planning purposes (McGimsey and Davis 1977:69).  It is important to realize that such a model “should be regarded as tentative and subject to testing in subsequent stages of research” (McGimsey and Davis 1977:69).  Subsequent stages typically involve more intensive investigation.

 

This assessment was conducted by members of the WMU Anthropology Department in conjunction with the WMU Office of Landscape Services through funding made available by the WMU Office of the Vice President for Business and Finance.  The study employed extant documentary sources, interviews with individuals knowledgeable about the property, and a pedestrian or walkover survey of the property to identify archaeologically sensitive areas.  An archaeological assessment will contribute to the mission of the Preserve by providing information on the extant cultural remains and past land-use practices to assist in planning future research, educational, and passive recreational uses of the parcel.

Background research was conducted in the 2003-2004 academic year. Rory Becker (graduate student) served as Project Archaeologist and was responsible for implementing the pedestrian survey and coordinating all aspects of the project.  Lacosta Lykowski (graduate student) conducted historical background research on the Asylum’s Colony Farm.  Both students worked directly under the supervision of Michael Nassaney (Professor of Anthropology) who served as Principal Investigator.

 The project area has a long history of land-use and exhibits a high potential for archaeological remains associated with pre-historic Native American occupation as well as more recent activities, despite the known modifications associated with recent activities in the Preserve.  For example, the area is adjacent to Asylum Lake, which would have been attractive to Native American hunter-gatherers and farmers in the past.  It was also the site of the Colony Farm, which was established in 1887 by the Kalamazoo State Hospital. (Initially founded as the Michigan Asylum for the Insane, the asylum had several name changes throughout its existence. We refer to the institution as the Kalamazoo State Hospital throughout this report.)  The farm began as an experimental facility to provide work opportunities for its patients as part of their rehabilitation.  It also contributed to the hospital’s self-sufficiency by providing fresh produce and canned goods for its patients and staff.  The Colony Farm operation was commonly referred to as “Fair Oaks” and these titles are used interchangeably in the historical documents.  We refer to the institutional farming efforts on the Preserve as simply Colony Farm throughout this report for the purpose of consistency.

We began this study by examining documentary sources pertaining to the history of activities conducted in the project area. In Chapter 2 of this report we present the historical and environmental context of the project area based on this background research. We begin by discussing the sources we consulted for information on the land-use practices in the project area from pre-contact times through the present.  We present this information in chronological order and highlight the archaeological expectations associated with past activities at the Preserve.  We pay particular attention to the post-1887 period and detail the built environment, site occupants, and daily activities associated with the Colony Farm.  In Chapter 3 we describe the methodology and results of the walkover or pedestrian survey.  The major outcome of this work is a series of maps produced with GIS software showing areas of archaeological sensitivity.  These can serve to guide management decisions pertaining to future developments at the Preserve. In the final chapter, we summarize the results of the archaeological assessment and make management recommendations for future research.  We call attention to high sensitivity areas and suggest the types of research questions that can potentially be addressed through the study of archaeological remains at the Preserve.

 

 

 

CHAPTER 2

 

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND RESEARCH

       

The purpose of this chapter is to define the spatial parameters of the project area (Figure 1) and to discuss the sources consulted for the background information during this study.  We also provide a historical overview of the land-use patterns and events associated with the project area based on the background research. 

 The project area consists of two parcels of land.  The first parcel lies between Asylum Lake and Parkview Avenue to the east of Drake Road in section 30 of Township 2 South, Range 11 West (referred to here as the Asylum Lake property).  The second parcel is between Drake Road and U.S. 131 north of Parkview Avenue in section 25 of Township 2 South, Range 12 West (known as the Colony Farm Orchard).  Although both of these properties lie within Kalamazoo County, the Asylum Lake property is in the City of Kalamazoo whereas the Colony Farm Orchard parcel is in Oshtemo Township.

Asylum Lake is a glacial lake that currently has a maximum depth of 15.8 meters (52 feet), mean depth of 7.2 meters (23.5 feet), maximum length of 930 meters (3,050 feet), maximum width of 290 meters (950 feet), mean width of 214 meters (702 feet), surface area of 19.9 hectares (49 acres), and volume of 1.4 million cubic meters (Kalamazoo Nature Center 2001).  It feeds into the smaller Little Asylum Lake from its eastern outflow, and ultimately supplies water to the Western Portage Creek watershed.

 

 

Figure 1. Project area shown shaded in gray on the 1967 USGS 7.5” Topographic Map, Kalamazoo Quadrangle.

The land once known as the “Lee Baker Farm” is immediately south of Parkview Avenue and east of U.S. 131 in section 31 of Township 2 South, Range 11 West in Kalamazoo County.  This area is the site of the John Gibbs house, soccer fields, and the WMU Business and Technology Park.  Although this parcel was a part of the Colony Farm operation between 1930 and 1959, it was not included as part of this archaeological assessment. The Gibbs house (3403 Parkview Avenue) is named for John Gibbs who moved to the Michigan Territory and purchased the land from the Kalamazoo District land office in 1832 (Durant 1993).  The land was sold to G. W. Hall after Gibbs’s death in the 1880s; Hall then sold it to H. A. Kiltz in 1913.  The state of Michigan acquired it in 1930. It is not known how the historic Gibbs house and property were utilized during the operation of Colony Farm, however the structure was conveyed to WMU in 1959 (Public Act 269) when institutional farming ended. The house is still owned by WMU; it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.  In that same year the WMU Board of Trustees dedicated the farmland to honor Dr. Lee O. Baker, 23-year chair of Western’s Department of Agriculture who along with his family were long-time occupants of the house (Mark Hoffman, personal communication, 2005).  The site subsequently became known as the Lee Baker Farm.

 Although the surrounding landscape was not included in the survey, it has the potential for intact archaeological remains associated with 19th century activities.  At Michael Nassaney’s request and with Chuck Ide’s permission, Dr. Michelle Kominz (Geosciences) conducted a geophysical survey of the property immediately behind the house in Fall 2002 in conjunction with her Introduction to Geophysics class (Geology 560). Several subsurface anomalies were identified within two 20 x 20 m blocks using electrical resistivity and conductivity. Subsurface testing is needed to determine if these anomalies have cultural significance.  Evidence of various outbuildings typically associated with agricultural activities may exist in close proximity to the Gibbs house (see Sayers and Nassaney [1999] for a predictive model of 19th century farmstead land-use patterns).

 

 

Background Research

 

The background research for this study was conducted during the 2003-2004 academic year.  During this time, Lacosta Lykowski and Rory Becker consulted many local and regional resources in order to gain insight into the history of land use in the project area. Most of the available documentation is related to the post-1887 Institutional Period (see below) and the Colony Farm operation.  However, our concern with the property includes all periods that may have supported human occupation, so a variety of resources were consulted in order to better assess the archaeological sensitivity of the property and its land-use practices.

 

Dean Anderson of the Office of the State Archaeologist was contacted with regard to previous archaeological investigations.  He indicated that the state archives have no information concerning any archaeological investigations of the project area and no sites have been recorded.  This study is the first examination of the archaeological potential of the project area.

The Western Michigan University Archives and Regional History Collections (Archives hereafter) located on WMU’s East Campus provided a wealth of information and resources.  These included many of the Board of Trustees Reports referenced in this document and all of the historic photographs of the Colony Farm operation.  A more complete set of the Board of Trustees Reports is held by the Michigan State University Libraries.  Plat books and historic maps of Kalamazoo proved useful in conducting this research and many of these are located at the Archives.  The Archives also house Sanborn Fire Insurance Maps for selected years.  However, the Sanborn maps did not aid in this research because the project area was located outside of the Kalamazoo City limits for the selected maps available.  Review of the more comprehensive set of Sanborn maps at the University of Michigan also provided no additional information about the project area for the same reason. 

 The Local History Room in the Kalamazoo County Public Library located in downtown Kalamazoo has many sources of information about Colony Farm and Kalamazoo County in general.  These resources include local histories and back issues of the Kalamazoo Gazette.  In fact, many of the references to the Kalamazoo Gazette presented in this report are kept in two folders located in the Local History Room.  These folders contain newspaper clippings that provide detailed accounts of the Kalamazoo State Hospital and Colony Farm.  However, many of the clippings are photocopied from originals and lack references to the date, month, or year that the articles were printed.  These have been referenced as “Kalamazoo Gazette” with no accompanying year or date in several places throughout this report.

Larry Massie’s 1991 work titled Report on the Historic Use of the Property Commonly Known as the Kalamazoo State Hospital Colony Farm, the Michigan State University Agricultural Experimental Orchard, and the Lee Baker Farm is also located at the Archives.  This document provides information about the history of Colony Farm, specifically the use of the Colony Farm orchard as an experimental research site for pesticide application by the Michigan State University Department of Entomology beginning in 1963. 

We also consulted the environmental assessment report prepared by Soil and Materials Engineers, Inc. (SME) (1992).  Although the focus of this study was to investigate areas of potential environmental concern on or near the project area (e.g., the potential for hazardous materials), some historical background research was conducted, along with limited subsurface testing.   SME contacted the Michigan Historical Center to obtain files on the mental health facility.  They identified “271 feet 9 inches of shelf space for the asylum files,” though they only reviewed five boxes chosen on the basis of a brief description of the files found in the index. These files, which can only be accessed by obtaining written permission, were not examined in our study.  SME also learned that records for the asylum property facility once maintained by the Kalamazoo State Hospital have been destroyed, according to the secretary who served Richard Thompson, the hospital’s administrative director in 1992.  On October 19, 20, and 21, 1992, Julie Hartner and Greg Bills of SME conducted a visual inspection of the property.  In addition to taking photographs of site conditions, they also used a backhoe to explore the contents and potential vertical and horizontal extent of a dump identified in a gully south of Asylum Lake.  They noted the presence of food-related artifacts (cans, bottles, and dishware), as well as medical containers, and determined the dump to be at least 11 feet deep based on two backhoe trenches (SME 1992:3, Photo 31, 32).

Census records were also consulted at the Kalamazoo Public Library.  However, searches for some of the previous landowners such as Phineus Hunt and Neil Hindes proved unsuccessful.  Information about these people was obtained primarily from the History of Kalamazoo County (Durant 1993).  This work has been reprinted several times and copies can be found in the Kalamazoo Public Library, WMU’s Waldo Library, and the Archives. 

 All of the current or modern maps presented in this report are located in the Map Room on the third floor of Waldo Library.  These include USGS 7.5” topographic maps of Kalamazoo County and the most recent plat books for Kalamazoo and Oshtemo townships. 

The Portage Public Library in Portage, Michigan has a collection of aerial photographs from Kalamazoo County and the surrounding area, including a 1960 photograph of the project area. They are located in the Local History Room in the basement of the library. Unfortunately, this collection is currently neither cataloged nor indexed; thus, one needs to have a familiarity with the property to be able to identify the 1960 photograph in the absence of a label.  Although we conducted an exhaustive search of these photographs and identified only one of the project area, there may be more images of this property in the collection that remain unidentified.  According to Robert Nagler (personal communication to Michael Nassaney, 2005), the Kalamazoo Public Works Department also has some aerial photographs of the property.

 The Kalamazoo County Courthouse and associated offices located in county office buildings in downtown Kalamazoo contain records of land transactions, compilation sheets, and land titles that aided in referencing the previous landowners associated with the project area.

The regional office of the U. S. Geological Survey was also contacted for historic photographs and maps of the area.  Their office has a list of available aerial photographs of Kalamazoo County beginning in 1938 and ending with the most recent photographs taken in 1999.  These can be purchased in black and white or color.  Additionally, recent satellite images of the area may be obtained for free on the internet at www.msnterraserver.com. 

 The Western Michigan University Physical Plant houses a large collection of maps, blueprints, and schematic drawings of many university buildings and properties.  While this collection has maps and blueprints of nearly every building and shed associated with the State Hospital on Oakland Drive, there is only one map of Colony Farm.  However, this 1960s map from the Physical Plant collection labels and locates all of the Colony Farm buildings, sheds, and outbuildings that were also identified through historic documentary research and appear on the 1960 aerial photograph in the Portage Public Library.  This map of Colony Farm is located in one of two drawers marked KMH (Kalamazoo Mental Hospital).  The 1960s map located in the WMU Physical Plant is considered to be the most comprehensive resource for locating and identifying the cottages, barns, sheds, and other outbuildings associated with Colony Farm.  The GIS maps presented in this report showing building locations at different times are based primarily on information derived from the Physical Plant map. An architectural inventory of the state hospital buildings including those at Colony Farm was conducted for the state of Michigan (Daverman Associates 1969).  Detailed maps provide scale drawings showing room sizes and functions. 

Lacosta Lykowski interviewed Stephan Louisell, Professor of Psychology, at Kalamazoo Valley Community College for this study in 2004. Louisell moved to Colony Farm in 1953 when he was about 8 years old and lived there for about 3 years with his parents and siblings.  His father, James Louisell M.D., was a resident physician for Colony Farm. Stephan Louisell shared some remembrances of Colony Farm that differ from descriptions presented by the Board of Regents’ reports. He also mentioned that prior to the 1970s patients were not remunerated for their labor and that this practice was terminated through the efforts of an ACLU lawyer.  Further discussions with Louisell and Dr. William Decker, the former medical superintendent of the Asylum Lake operation, may prove to be useful in understanding daily life for the staff and patients.

Dr. William Sauk (WMU, Geosciences) has been using geophysics on the property for a number of years. Sauk is an expert in geophysical prospecting and his efforts have resulted in the identification of several subsurface anomalies related to Colony Farm.  These include a number of pipes which supplied the residences with water and the below ground cement structures that were used for maintenance of these pipes. Figure 2 shows the location of the pipes that were identified in 1992 through use of an EM-31 conductivity meter on the property.

 

Figure 2. Subsurface anomalies exhibiting signatures consistent with utility pipes identified through geophysical survey. 

The property is also the location of a geophysical test site created by the Department of Geosciences with assistance from Anthropology.  The test site consists of a number of buried objects (e.g., metal) and activity areas (e.g., fire pits) that simulate archaeological artifacts and features.

WMU Anthropology graduate students Daniel Lynch and Rory Becker conducted a limited geophysical survey in the area west of Drake Road during spring of 2003 (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Location of the 2003 geophysical survey grid.

 

A TR Systems resistivity meter with a twin probe array set at 50 cm for the mobile probe separation was used over a 20 x 40 m grid.  The use of Surfer software to process the resistivity data produced an image (Figure 4) that coincides with the location of the “maternity barn” constructed in the early 20th century. The rectangular foundation of the structure is clearly visible in this image along with other internal features. The large light area near the southwestern corner of the foundation represents a coal slag pile left over from heating the structure.  This single image provides information on the exact location, design, and architecture of the structure. 

 

Figure 4. Results of the 2003 resistivity survey. Note the rectangular anomaly that probably represents the remains of the maternity barn.

 

Summary

A broad range of documentary and other sources of historical data were consulted during the background research conducted for the Asylum Lake Archaeological Assessment. We examined these sources with an eye toward identifying activities and land-use practices conducted in the project area that may have left material traces. The remainder of this chapter will detail the results of the background research and underscore the potential of the project area to contain archaeological remains associated with different periods of activity.

 

 

Historic Overview

Pre-Contact Period (ca. 10,000 B.C. - A. D. 1650)  

The State of Michigan contains extensive archaeological evidence of its ancient inhabitants dating to more than 10,000 years ago, and southwest Michigan is no exception (Halsey 1999). Studies throughout the region show that indigenous peoples often chose to settle in close proximity to fresh water sources similar to the area surrounding Asylum Lake.  Settlement patterns of Native peoples living in this area followed the seasonal availability of food resources.  Large seasonally permanent villages were constructed near rivers and lakes during summer months while temporary hunting camps were inhabited in the winter (Fitting and Cleland 1969).  This yearly pattern of settlement allowed the Native Americans to take advantage of aquatic resources during spring and late summer when various fish species spawn (Cleland 1982). This type of settlement pattern was based on maximizing the yearly cycle of available meat resources, namely fish and wild game, in conjunction with maize and other crops once these were adopted by Native peoples (Cleland 1982; Fitting and Cleland 1969).  Furthermore, water and adjacent wetland associations exerted a significant “pull” on Native settlement based on extensive archaeological survey in southwest Michigan, including Kalamazoo County (Cremin and De Fant 1987:153).

The geographic and environmental characteristics of the areas surrounding the Preserve were attractive settlement locales that are likely to contain evidence of pre-contact, Native American activities in the form of artifacts and features (e.g., hearths, storage pits).  In particular, the small stream and nearby kettle hole lake now known as Asylum Lake would have provided a favorable location for the placement of camps and villages given the availability of fresh water and fish. Some evidence of human activity may be under water given that the extent of the modern lake is the result of a modern dam. Nevertheless, the modern lake margins have a high probability of containing archaeological evidence of pre-contact sites. Subsurface testing would be needed to identify the presence of such sites.

 

 

            Frontier Period (A. D. 1650-1805) 

There is no documentary evidence that the project area was occupied during the Frontier Period. However, historical accounts and archaeological evidence are generally sparse for this period; those that exist indicate that the French were actively trading with Native allies in southwestern Michigan from the late 17th through the 18th centuries (Nassaney et al. 2003).  Native American and European trappers may have visited the project area in their fur trading activities or while searching for a land route from Fort St. Joseph in Niles, Michigan to Detroit (Cremin and De Fant 1987:126). 

Since the nearest documented fort was located some 70 miles to the southwest of the project area, occupation at the Preserve during this time period would have been confined to small temporary camps associated with trapping rather than large seasonal occupations as seen in the previous period.  The European trappers and Native Americans would have been attracted to the project area for many of the same reasons as prior to Contact.  Running water and a lake provide ample habitat for beaver and muskrats while the hardwood grove presently located south of Asylum Lake would have been an attractive habitat for white-tailed deer.  Based on the size of the oaks and maples in this grove, we suspect that these same trees were present on the landscape after Contact.

Evidence of fur trade era occupation in the project area has not yet been documented; it would likely consist of materials associated with short-term trapping and hunting expeditions away from nearby forts.  Possible examples of material culture from this time period may include gun flints, musket balls, knives, trade beads, and ornamental items such as tinkling cones.  Any evidence of European and Native American trappers and traders in the project area would probably be located at the lake margins where animals would have been harvested or on the flat areas south of the lake and stream, as these would have provided good sites for camping.

  

 

Early American Period (1805-1887)

The territorial government of Michigan began active operation on July 2, 1805 when Gen. William Hull was appointed governor.  Jurisdiction of the territory at this time included the present day State of Michigan’s Lower Peninsula, including the Preserve.  In 1831, Phineus Hunt purchased 324 acres from the Territory of Michigan’s Kalamazoo district land office (Durant 1993).  This purchase included the SW 1/4 and E 1/4 of the SE 1/4 of section 30 in T2S, R11W and also the W 1/4 of the SE 1/4 of section 25 in T2S, R12W minus 20 acres in the NW corner of the section 25 property.  This marks the first documented ownership of what would later become the project area.

Also during the early 1830s, Kalamazoo County’s first African-American settlers arrived.  In 1831 Enoch and Deborah Harris purchased land and began farming west of the Preserve.  A state historical marker commemorates these pioneers in Oshtemo Township.  Archaeological evidence of activities associated with the Harris’s homestead may still exist on the landscape today.

Hunt’s farming operation would prove to be short lived.  He sold the land in 1835 to Neil Hindes, a pioneer who was born in Elizabeth, NJ on June 21, 1798 (Durant 1993).  When the transaction occurred, the property had been partly timbered and included Hunt’s log cabin (Durant 1993).  On August 22, 1874, Neil Hindes died after thirty-nine years of farming this parcel of land.  During these years, the property had been improved through timbering and the addition of a house and outbuildings.  Orchards had been planted and fields were cleared. Neil Hindes and his wife raised 11 children, eight of whom were born on their Michigan farmstead.  Since Mrs. Hindes had died some years earlier, the Hindes’ oldest daughter Margaret S. (married to Charles E. Smith) inherited the property at the time of her father’s death in 1874 (Durant 1993).

The inclusion of items such as cows and hay in the 1887 land transaction (see below) indicates that the Hindes would have minimally needed a barn for milking and storing hay, machinery to harvest the hay, and a place to store equipment and surplus harvest.  The Board of Trustees Report from 1888 indicates that fruit was harvested from the orchard in the first year of the Colony Farm operation.  Since fruit trees normally take several years to mature and produce a crop, it is clear that Neil Hindes had already planted the orchard and had been harvesting the fruit.  These endeavors would also require equipment and storage facilities on the property.

Documentary evidence indicates that the Hindes house was located west of present day Drake Road in the southeastern portion of the Colony Farm Orchard property.  Typical outbuildings and features that may have been associated with the Hindes farm would have included a barn, tool shed, silo, cistern, and privy or outhouse.  The number of additional structures built by Neil Hindes on the property is not known, however many of them were probably located in proximity to the farmhouse (see Sayers and Nassaney 1999). 

Archaeological evidence for the Neil Hindes occupation on the Preserve might be found near the southern portions of the Colony Farm Orchard property between the shed currently utilized by WMU’s Department of Geosciences and Drake Road (Figure 5).  Luckily, the expansion of Drake Road during the summer of 2000 added another lane to the east of the existing road and probably had limited impact on potential archaeological materials from the farm during this time period.  Additions to the property by the Colony Farm operation may have disturbed or masked potential archaeological materials from the Hindes’ occupation of the farm.  However, foundations of structures that pre-date Colony Farm may still exist, along with features such as cisterns, trash middens, and privies that were used by the Hindes family and later by residents of the Colony Farm. 

 

 

Institutional Period (1887-1969)

In the 1880s, the landscape of the project area began to take on an entirely different appearance.  The genesis of these changes lay in the ideas of health reform for the mentally ill advocated by Dr. Thomas S. Kirkbride and Dorothea Dix in the 1840s. In his influential 1854 publication, On the Construction, Organization, and General Arrangements of Hospitals for the Insane with Some Remarks on Insanity and Its Treatment, Kirkbride created a blueprint for the spatial organization and living conditions of mental hospitals that was adopted throughout the country.  Under the so-called “Kirkbride Plan,” the superintendent of the Pennsylvania Hospital championed progressive therapies and a humane and compassionate environment for the insane.  At the same time, Dorothea Dix, a New England native, traveled across the country attempting to convince state legislatures to construct public asylums where the mentally ill could receive therapy and live in reasonable comfort. 

 

Figure 5. Location of the Neil Hindes farmhouse and Colony Farm property in 1887.

The State of Michigan heeded their admonitions when they established the Michigan Asylum for the Insane (later to be called the Kalamazoo State Hospital) in 1857.  The main building was constructed according to the innovative principles of hospital design and management that marked the Kirkbride Plan.  The hospital remains a prominent feature on the cultural landscape of Kalamazoo to the present.  Its large water tower, which supplied the grounds of the hospital proper, serves as an icon of Kalamazoo’s past that can be seen from many miles away.  Various parts of the Kalamazoo State Hospital are either listed on, or considered eligible for, the National Register of Historic Places (Barbara Mead, personal communication, 2004).  The previously mentioned water tower as well as the State Hospital Gatehouse are listed on the National Register, whereas the Main Hospital and Administrative Complex (Buildings 1, 1A, 1B, 2, 3, 4), the Occupational Therapy Building (Building 23), and the Children’s Unit (Building 7) are considered eligible by the Office of Historic Preservation’s staff.

 In addition to adopting Kirkbride’s design principles, the hospital’s Board of Trustees also experimented with therapeutic work opportunities for their patients. The most enduring venture was the Colony Farm located several miles from the hospital.  On the June 11, 1887, Margaret S. Smith, eldest daughter of Neil Hindes, sold her 324-acre property to the State of Michigan for the sum of $18,000.  Accompanying the land in the sale were all buildings including a house and barn.  Other inclusions of the 1887 sale were standing hay and livestock, which amounted to three short horn cows, two calves, and four Holstein cows.  At the time of the purchase, the Kalamazoo State Hospital acquired a complete working farm including implements and livestock. 

The Colony Farm was intended to be a place where able patients could perform therapeutic labor. In 1887 the Board of Trustees reported favorably on their earlier farm experiment that provided patients with a healthy environment in which to spend their days, and the physical and mental health benefits afforded by activities associated with farm life (Report of the Board of Trustees 1887).  The Kalamazoo State Hospital introduced the idea of rehabilitating patients in productive activities at the Brook Farm, which was located approximately two miles north of the asylum in Kalamazoo along Douglas Street.  This type of rehabilitation was likely stimulated by Kirkbride’s progressive ideas for treatment. More than two decades earlier, Kirkbride had visited the Worchester State Hospital in Massachusetts where he observed patients working outdoors in gardens and being encouraged to walk about the grounds as a component of their therapy (Kirkbride 1854).  At Brook Farm the Kalamazoo State Hospital kept a herd of Holstein cows which supplied milk for its patients and staff.  The Board of Trustees believed that the farm provided patients with a healthy environment in which to spend their days and the labor associated with farm life increased their overall physical and mental well being (Report of the Board of Trustees 1887).  The State Mental Hospital administrators not only saw the benefits from the Brook Farm experiment in terms of improved patient health, but also economic benefits through the agricultural surplus produced on the farm. According to Louisell, patients were not remunerated for their labor.

 

The success of the small Brook Farm operation prompted the Kalamazoo State Hospital to expand upon the idea.  When they purchased the Hindes farm in 1887, they sought a property that came with all of the necessary livestock and equipment for the institution to begin farming operations immediately.  The acreage was slightly expanded in October of 1887 when the State of Michigan purchased small portions of the D. D. McMartin farm which bordered the former Hindes property and McMartin Lake (later changed to Asylum Lake) to the north (Report of the Board of Trustees 1887).

 

In the remainder of this section we discuss various aspects of Colony Farm and the archaeological evidence that may be associated with it today.  First, we begin with a more detailed description of the built environment on the Preserve during the Institutional Period.  Then, we discuss the economic impacts of Colony Farm.  Finally, we explore the daily conditions experienced by patients and hospital employees who lived and worked on the farm, particularly the types of activities that took place on the farm in addition to agricultural and domestic labor. 

 

 

 

The Built Environment

The facilities of Hindes farm in the summer of 1887 were well suited for the type of operation envisioned by the Kalamazoo State Hospital. However, additional buildings were needed to house the patients and staff that would work and live on the farm.  The transformation of the Niel Hindes property from a single-family farm to a working extension of the Kalamazoo State Hospital would be implemented over a forty-year period. 

The Hindes farmhouse was expanded during early fall of 1887 to accommodate patients and staff.  Fifteen female patients and one attendant occupied this structure by late fall.  The Hindes farmhouse (renamed Hindes Cottage based on Kirkbride’s terminology) was reported to house 20 male patients and two attendants by the fall of 1889 (Figure 6).

Construction of two additional facilities located closer to Asylum Lake began early in the spring of 1888.  The buildings constructed on the Asylum Lake parcel were located within a

 

Figure 6. Hindes Cottage in the early 20th century.

 

maturing oak savannah, with the northern portion of the forest overlooking the lake (Mark Hoffman, personal communication, 2005).  Van Deusen Cottage, renamed Grosvenor Cottage by 1916, was the first new structure to be built on the Colony Farm property for the purpose of housing patients and was completed by the fall of 1888 (Figure 7).  It was a two-story brick building that included an attic and basement with brick partition walls.  This structure had the capacity to accommodate 50 male patients on the second floor.  The first floor of Van Deusen Cottage consisted of sitting rooms, a hallway, a stairway, and a room for one attendant.  At the rear of the first floor were several utility areas including a dining room, kitchen, pantry, laundry, lavatory, bath, and clothes-room (Report of the Board of Trustees 1889-90). 

 

Figure 7. Van Deusen Cottage in the early 20th century.

Staircases to the second floor were located at the front and rear of the building in case of fire.  The second story included sleeping rooms for patients and attendants, which were divided into two large and two small dormitories as well as several single rooms and a water-closet (Report of the Board of Trustees 1888).  The basement had a cement floor and housed the boiler.

Palmer Cottage, a sister residence to Van Deusen Cottage, was completed in the fall of 1889 to accommodate 80 female patients (Figure 8).  The cottage was built of brick with brick partition walls and contained heating and ventilating flues. The first floor included two sitting rooms, an attendant’s room, the elderly ladies’ dormitory, a dining room, a hallway, and a stairway. The first floor also contained a kitchen, pantry, storeroom, laundry, clothes-room, bathroom and water closet, while the second and third floors were devoted to housing attendants and patients (Report of the Board of Trustees 1889-90).  A few rooms at the south end of the building were designated for the sick and others requiring special care.  Palmer Cottage, like Van Deusen Cottage, was also heated by steam. The boiler and radiating surfaces were located in the basement (Report of the Board of Trustees 1889-90).

 

Figure 8.  Palmer Cottage in the early 20th century.

The remodeling of the Neil Hindes farmhouse and construction of Van Deusen and Palmer cottages brought the patient capacity at Colony Farm up to 100 males and 80 females by the fall of 1889.  In addition to patients and attendants, a few farmhands, employed by the State Hospital, resided in Hindes Cottage to assist with chores and provide skilled labor for general farming operations (Report of the Board of Trustees 1889).

Colony Farm was deemed to be an overwhelming success by the State Board of Trustees.  Over the next few years, the board lobbied the state legislature for monetary appropriations for continued construction and maintenance of buildings.  By 1892, two additional brick residences, Mitchell and Pratt cottages, were completed.    Mitchell Cottage was a three-story structure that housed 75 female patients and was built a few hundred yards to the southwest of Palmer Cottage on the Asylum Lake parcel (Figure 9).  It was also the first residence to have electricity.

 

 

Figure 9. Mitchell Cottage in the early 20th century.

Pratt Cottage was constructed on the Colony Farm Orchard parcel between Hindes Cottage and what is now Drake Road.  Pratt Cottage, the first new residence to be constructed on the property west of Drake Road (formerly called Colony Farm Road), could accommodate 67 male patients and their attendants as well as a few farmhands (Report of the Board of Trustees 1895-6).  Pratt Cottage was a sister residence to Mitchell and was similarly constructed of brick with three-stories and electricity (Figure 10). 

Following a fire in 1930, Pratt Cottage was rebuilt and enlarged.  The 3-story addition to the eastern portion of the structure was 175 by 42 feet and contained 43 rooms.  The 1930 remodeled Pratt Cottage could hold 120 male patients in addition to the 80 beds from the original 1892 Pratt structure.

 

 

Figure 10. Pratt Cottage prior to 1930 remodeling.

In 1895, 35 years before the Pratt Cottage was expanded, the Board of Trustees reported that the 246 patients residing at Colony Farm were a sufficiently large number to warrant a house for the assistant physician and his family.  Prior to this time, the on-site physician and family were living in a portion of the Van Deusen Cottage.  The physician’s quarters were erected in 1897 between Palmer Cottage and Mitchell Cottage and the residence was named Fair Oaks Cottage (Figure 11).

By 1894, the five cottages (Hindes, Van Deusen, Palmer, Mitchell, and Pratt) were in need of a new sewer system.  The previous system of allowing sewage to flow into receiving tanks and retrieving it in barrels was abandoned and the cottages were fitted with a new system known as the intermittent sub-surface method: 

 

 

Figure 11. Fair Oaks Cottage in the early 20th century.

 

Sewer pipes were laid from each of the cottages and joining the main sewer the waste is carried a quarter of a mile away into a receiving tank. This is divided into two compartments from the larger of which the sewerage is emptied periodically by a siphon and carried to a distributing field of sand.  Through this it is evenly distributed by means of tiles about six inches below the ground with open spaces at the ends (Report of the Board of Trustees 1894: 46)

The sewage treatment facility was located at the far northeast corner of the property just south of Asylum Lake (Figure 12).  It is unknown where the “distributing field of sand” was located.  This new treatment system alleviated the sanitation problem of standing sewage at each of the cottages.

Figure 12. Locations of Colony Farm buildings in 1900.

           

A proper fresh water system was also installed in 1894 near Pratt Cottage where a six-inch pipe was driven 90 feet down to an abundant water supply.  Electricity from the main asylum was used to pump the water into a tank previously constructed for water storage in Pratt Cottage.  From this point, a service pipe was laid to each of the other cottages supplying the entire complex with fresh water (Report of the Board of Trustees 1894: 46).  This electric pump took the place of previous systems that required individual tanks located at each structure to be filled by wind driven pumps.  The water system was modified in 1903 when a water tower was constructed to the north of Pratt Cottage and pump houses were built near the lake and Van Deusen Cottage.  These pumps carried water to the tower that, in turn, provided water pressure to the rest of the complex through a series of pipes running to each residence from the water tower. The extent to which the well at Pratt Cottage was used following the construction of the water tower is unclear; however, it is conceivable that this continued to supply fresh ground water to the tower.

 

With the increased traffic on the property and added improvements, paved drives with gutters were constructed to remaining cottages that lacked vehicular access.  All of these turn-of-the-century enhancements (i.e., sewage treatment, fresh water system, and improved roads) were made to improve “the appearance of the colony park” and the quality of life at Colony Farm (Report of the Board of Trustees 1894:46).

A barn was constructed around 1895 for horses, farm equipment, and surplus hay and grain. This structure was built west of Colony Farm Road (Drake Road) and north of Hindes Cottage.  The A-frame structure was 66 feet wide by 88 feet long with walls of stone and a slate roof (Report of the Board of Trustees 1895-6).  In general, the farming operation included barns and outbuildings that were clustered near the former Neil Hindes house (see Figure 12).  Later in 1901, the cow barn located north of the 1895 A-frame barn was renovated and new cement floors were added.  Furthermore, “stanchions and mangers were put in and drainage provided for all liquids to large cisterns erected outside the barns from which it is taken to be spread on fields of growing crops” (Report of the Board of Trustees 1901-2:8). An additional maternity barn for birthing calves was built near the milking barn.  Cellars for the storage of winter feed for the cattle were constructed near this structure. 

 

In 1909 the Michigan Asylum for the Insane was renamed the Kalamazoo State Hospital. The following year a major addition to Colony Farm was completed.  Known as the Rich Building, this three-story structure measured 44 x 104’ and housed a general heating plant, laundry, workroom, and bathroom in the basement (Figure 13).  The first floor included a general kitchen and communal dining room while the second and third floors served as women’s residences and nurses’ sleeping rooms.  This building, also called the Rich Cottage, was designed to facilitate and economize service and to increase quarters for female patients and nurses.  The structure was also built such that the kitchens and dining rooms could be converted into room for 50 more beds if needed (Report of the Board of Trustees 1910).  This cottage provided much needed utility space, improved heating for the operation, and further increased the capacity for female patients and employees on the premises.

The 1930s mark the beginning of the Colony Farm’s heyday.  At this time, six residences stood on the property (Hindes, Grosvenor, Palmer, Mitchell, Pratt, and Rich cottages) in addition to the physician’s residence (Fair Oaks Cottage).  The sewage treatment facility was the most easterly structure located on the property.  Outbuildings for farming purposes included the large

1890s A-frame barn (Horse Barn in Figure 10), a bull barn, dairy barn, maternity barn, hay barn, hen house, hog house, wood house, and several sheds to accommodate farming implements and

Figure 13. Locations of Colony Farm buildings in 1930.

 

tools.  All of these farming structures were built to the west of Colony Farm Road (also 12th Street at this time and later Drake Road).  They provided easy access to the nearby orchards to the north, the fields located on the Asylum Lake parcel to the east, and the newly acquired Kiltz property to the south of Parkview.   The 240-acre H. A. Kiltz farm was purchased for $28,992.70 by the State of Michigan in 1930 and this property greatly increased the land used for fields and pasture. The Kiltz farm purchase also included the 1850s Gibbs house and associated outbuildings.

 

Other than the addition of a few small outbuildings and sheds for farming purposes, no new construction was initiated in the Preserve until 1953 when a new heating plant was completed southwest of Mitchell Cottage to supply steam heat to all the buildings (Figure 14).  This new plant could operate on either gas or oil and greatly increased the cottages’ heating efficiency (Annual Reports 1953-4).  Additionally, underground access tunnels large enough to accommodate foot traffic were built at the same time as the heating plant, connecting Grosvenor, Rich, Mitchell, and Palmer cottages.  The tunnels were constructed of reinforced concrete and were approximately six and a half feet tall and five feet wide with access to the basement of each connecting residence.  The Board of Trustees Report (1953) documents the construction of these tunnels, though their exact purpose is not stated.  They may have allowed the staff access between buildings in inclement weather. At least one of the tunnels was designated as a licensed fallout shelter in 1964 (Lorentz 1964).

The construction efforts on the Preserve property during the Institutional Phase came to a halt in 1953.  Documentary resources do not indicate the construction of additional buildings of any sort (e.g., residences, barns, sheds) after this date.

    

Figure 14. Locations of Colony Farm buildings in 1953.

 

Economic Activities

 

            Although the primary purpose of Colony Farm was to provide better accommodations for the mentally ill, an ancillary benefit was the economic contribution that patients could make to their own welfare and maintenance by working on the farm. An occupied bed at the main institution in the late 1800s cost the taxpayer $1000, whereas an occupied bed at Colony Farm only cost $300 per year (Report of the Board of Trustees 1889). The operations at Colony Farm reduced the cost of caring for the mentally ill in Michigan by providing subsistence goods for patients and employees that did not need to be purchased. The farm also offered an improved living situation through which patients could test their readiness for a return to the ordinary affairs of the outside world (Kalamazoo Gazette 7/10/30). Patients provided free agricultural labor.

 

Fruits, grains, vegetables, and milk were among the goods produced on the farm.  The spring strawberry harvest of 1888 yielded 775 quarts and fall fruits for the year included 182.5 bushels and 44 barrels of apples, 26 quarts of cherries, 4 bushels of plums, and 11 quarts of raspberries.  In addition to fruits, 163.5 tons of hay, 1,280 bushels of oats, 2,428 bushels of corn, and 312 bushels of potatoes were harvested that first year (Report of the Board of Trustees 1888).  Some garden vegetables were also grown during this planting season yielding a few bushels of beans, cabbage, cucumbers, lettuce, onions, peas, radishes and turnips.  A similar assortment of fruits and vegetables were harvested from Colony Farm through the end of the 19th century with the addition of a vineyard in the early 1900s (Annual Reports 1953). 

 

Livestock on the premises included cattle, hogs, turkeys, chickens, and ducks; horses provided traction and transportation. Produce from livestock and poultry, in addition to many of the fruit crops, supplemented the hospital’s pantries and were used to feed patients and employees. Surplus crops were sold at local markets for a profit, helping to further reduce the costs of operation. However, records indicate that less than 20% of the farm’s annual fruit harvest and dairy products were sold for a profit. 

The farming operation continued to supplement the needs of the asylum proper until the 1950s. In 1958, the dairy herds at Brook Farm were sold because it became more economical to buy milk than to produce it.  The few remaining cattle were relocated to Colony Farm, but milk production for consumption at the institution soon ceased.  Increased efficiency in the production of commercial goods made it difficult for the farm to compete in the market.

Fruit and grain crop production also declined throughout the 1950s and led to small harvests by the end of this decade.  In 1963, Dr. Angus J. Howitt from the Michigan State University Department of Entomology began actively using the Colony Farm orchard to the west of Drake Road for experimental research.  The farming operation was terminated in 1966 and the remainder of the dairy herd was sold (Massie 1991).

Evidence for the intensive farming practices that took place on the farm is still apparent in the project area.  Remnants of the orchard exist on the property and the vineyard appears in the 19